Language and Thought: A Critical Examination of Historical Research of Bilingualism and Intelligence

By Carlos Cervantes

Reflection based on the following article:

Peal, E., & Lambert, W. E. (1962). The relation of bilingualism to intelligence. Psychological Monographs, 76(27), 1–23.

The beginnings

In the 1920s and 1930s, researchers began to investigate the potential relationship between bilingualism and cognitive abilities. This approach sought to explore the interaction between linguistic competence and intellectual performance.

Prior research suggested that bilingualism could be a cognitive burden, rather than benefit. The findings suggested by Saer (1923) provided observations where monoglot children showed a superior performance on the Binet scale of intelligence compared to bilingual children.  Mental confusion on bilingual subjects was found a characteristic that could make a significant impact on the detrimental performance.

The perspective that bilingual children underperformed on intellectual measurements was supported and also researched by Smith (Smith,1923) who observed that monoglots had an advantage on verbal tests.

Pinter (1932) reported inconclusive results on the relationship between bilingualism and intelligence among students in New York. Subsequently, Pinter and Arsenian (1937) and Spoerl (1944) found minimal correlation in IQ scores between studied groups.

Darcy (1946) and Levinson (1959) conducted studies controlling variables such as age, sex and social class. They employed different methods for verbal and nonverbal skills yielding mixed findings and highlighting the need for further research.

Later in 1960 (Jones and Lewis,1960) scientists criticized inadequate treatment of socioeconomic class in previous research.

Considering the potential differences in intellectual structure and the identification of methodological weaknesses in previous research and the mixed findings, Peal and Lambert aimed to extensively analyse the effects of bilingualism on children´s intellectual performance.

The Study

The research was aimed to examine the effects of bilingualism on the intellectual functioning of children and to understand the relationship between bilingualism, school achievements and student’s attitudes to the second language.

The researchers hypothesized that bilinguals should not differ significantly on nonverbal tests of intelligence, but that bilinguals may score lower than monolinguals on verbal intelligence. This hypothesis seems to be based on the findings of previous studies reviewed by the authors, which suggested that bilinguals often show deficits in verbal measures. Furthermore, the researchers also considered potential factors that could influence performance, such as the level of dominance of the second language and the socioeconomic level.

Participants:

The study involved 10-year-old participants from six different schools in Montreal. All the subjects were classified as middle-class participants, school grades were not standardized.

The sample was integrated by 164 participants; 75 monolinguals and 89 bilinguals.

Procedure:

A comparative approach was adopted to assess the intellectual differences between groups.

Word association tests and self-ratings were first conducted to determine the language domain.

The intelligence measures included nonverbal and verbal tests, that were administrated as an adaptation of the version of Lavoie-Laurendeau Test(Lavoie & Laurendeau, 1960), The Raven´s Colored Matrices(Raven,1956), and a subtest of the Thurstone Mental Abilities ( Thurstone& Thurstone, 1954).

Specific ratings to examine achievement in school were also considered and independent variables were captured: sex, school grade, number of years speaking English and socioeconomic class.

The Significance

The Peal and Lambert´s study had a relevant significance on psychology, providing an empirical framework for a broader comprehension of human cognitive understanding. The study is a prime example of how research can challenge previous assumptions and make an impact on a shift appraisal not only for professionals but also for the broader public.

The change in prevailing assumptions was insightful by challenging the concept that bilingualism was often thought to have negative impacts on cognitive ability. The findings presented confronted previous research and suggested that bilingual individuals may have cognitive advantages.

The study also provided an improvement on preexisting research methodology by incorporating broader assessment techniques for cognitive abilities compared to previous studies. The incorporation of socio-economic characteristics and ensuring that participants were proficient in the second language helped to isolate the bilingual independent variable and to adjust weaknesses (Liu,2021) that were found in previous research. A clearer distinction in second language proficiency brought a methodological contribution to the field (Hakuta and Diaz, 1987).

The research also contributed to the first steps to influencing educational approaches, understanding the potential advantages of bilingualism, and transforming the attitudes towards bilingual education and how bilinguals could be perceived in society (Peter Homel et al. 1987).

By challenging previous mixed conclusions, the research has not only contributed to science acumen but also influenced society´s overall reevaluation of breaking linguistic barriers.

The Appraisal

The methodological breakthrough and the interpretations of the results can be analyzed for a critical appraisal.

Potential biases on the bilingual sample could have benefited the bilingual group, while the average bilinguals belonged to a higher grade than monolingual, that variation could have a potential handicap of performance because of more years of exposure to education (Hakuta and Diaz, 1985).  Also, the process of selection might have introduced a bias in favour of the bilingual group because they have included only children with a high degree of second language domain and possibly reflecting previous vocabulary advantage on verbal tests, remarking that bilinguals who suffered from language handicaps were eliminated.

Specific information about abandon rates was not discussed, considering that dropout can impact results considering that reasons for leaving could be related to a child´s cognitive functioning.

When analyzing results, an association between bilingualism and higher cognitive ability was found, but it is uncertain if cognitive advantages are more likely to become bilingual. 

A potential limitation lies in terms of age and socio-cultural background. Subsequent research is needed to analyze the relationship between mental abilities in different contexts.

Even though the selection of highly proficient bilinguals was considered a strength of the study (Hakuta and Diaz, 1985), this condition may introduce a potential inclination, focusing only when high proficiency is presented (Cummins, 1979).

Future research is needed to understand if positive outputs can be sustained over time.

 

The Aftermath

The study by Peal and Lambert was novel at the time of its publication and had a significant influence on both academic and public perceptions of bilingualism.

The research received considerable attention in the education system by contextualizing the principal justifications for initiating bilingual education programs in the United States and Canada during the 1970´s. Institutions such as New York University employed the empirical framework to synthesize findings on bilingualism. This effort aimed to integrate insights from various disciplines, including psychology, education and linguistics (Homel et al. 1987). Moreover, the research opened the pathway to the exploration of pedagogical strategies towards the acquisition of a second language (Adesope et al. 2011).

General discourse increasingly started to recognise the multifaceted benefits of bilingualism. A wide spectrum of arguments (Baker, 1993) began to gain acceptance:

- Communication advantages: enhanced communications capabilities that extend to family interactions, community, and international connections.

- Cultural advantages: facilitating broader connections and deeper multiculturalism.

- Cognitive advantages: thinking benefits.

- Character advantages: associated with increased self-esteem.

- Professional advantages: employment benefits when adding a language skill.

Within the psychology field, the study has significantly shaped theoretical frameworks, as evidenced by its extensive citation, with over 3,200 references noted in academic databases such as Google Scholar. Following this, subsequent theories such as those proposed by Lenneberg (Lenneberg,1967) raised, not only emphasizing on critical age stages but also focusing on the brain's structural characteristics for acquiring language.

Despite its influence, the study received criticism (Hakuta and Diaz, 1985) that aided the implementation of new research methodologies and integration of advanced technologies; including functional magnetic resonance imaging in subsequent research (Bialystok et al,2012).

In the expansive realm of scientific inquiry, the curiosity around bilingualism has unified diverse disciplines, including neurology, geriatrics, psychiatry and psychology, to delve into the complex aspects of human challenges such as dementia (Bialystok, E. et al. 2007) and the potential advantages associated when bilingualism is present in people.

References:

Adesope, O. O., Lavin, T., Thompson, T., & Ungerleider, C. (2011). Pedagogical strategies for teaching literacy to ESL immigrant students: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(4), 629–653.

Baker, C. (1993). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Multilingual Matters. Baker, C., & Sienkewicz, A. (2000). The care and education of young bilinguals: An introduction for professionals. Multilingual Matters.

Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., & Luk, G. (2012). Bilingualism: consequences for mind and brain. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 16(4), 240-250.

Bialystok, E., Craik, F. I., & Freedman, M. (2007). Bilingualism as a protection against the onset of symptoms of dementia. Neuropsychology, 45, 459–464.

Cummins, J. (1976). The influence of bilingualism on cognitive growth: A synthesis of research findings and explanatory hypotheses. Working Papers on Bilingualism, No. 9.

Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of Educational Research, 49(2), 222-251.

Darcy, N. T. (1946). The effect of bilingualism upon the measurement of the intelligence of children of preschool age. Journal of Educational Psychology, 37, 21-44.

Hakuta, K., & Diaz, R. M. (1985). The relationship between degree of bilingualism and cognitive ability: A critical discussion and some new longitudinal data. In K. E. Nelson (Ed.), Children's language, Vol. 5 (pp. 319–344). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Hakuta, K., & Diaz, R. M. (2014). The relationship between degree of bilingualism and cognitive ability: A critical discussion and some new longitudinal data. In Children's language (pp. 337-362). Psychology Press.

Jones, W. R. (1960). A critical study of bilingualism and nonverbal intelligence. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 30, 71-76

 Lavoie, G., & Laurendeau, M. (1960). Tests collectifs d'intelligence generale. Institut de Recherches Psychologiques.

Lenneberg, E. H. (1967). Biological foundations of language. Wiley.

Liu, Q. Y., & Liu, Z. J. (2021). A review on the relationship between bilingualism and working memory. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics, 11, 121-134.

Peal, E., & Lambert, W. E. (1962). The relation of bilingualism to intelligence. Psychological Monographs, 76(27), 1–23.

Pintner, R. (1932). The influence of language background on intelligence tests. Journal of Social Psychology, 3, 235-240

Raven, J. C. (1956). Coloured Progressive Matrices: Sets A, Ab, B. Lewis.

Saer, D. J. (1923). The effect of bilingualism on intelligence. British Journal of Psychology. General Section, 14(1), 25.

Spoerl, D. T. (1944). The academic and verbal adjustment of college-age bilingual students. Journal of Genetic Psychology, 64, 139-157

Smith, F. (1923). Bilingualism and mental development. British Journal of Psychology. General Section, 13(3), 271.

Thurstone, L. L., & Thurstone, T. G. (1954). Primary Mental Abilities: Ages 7 to 11. Science Research Associates